This chapter introduces a literature reappraisal about the indoor air quality ( IAQ ) issues in schoolrooms. The beginnings of the common indoor pollutants and the ill edifice syndrome ( SBS ) , and its effects on the pupil ‘s and staff ‘s comfort, wellness, larning public presentation and productiveness were discussed. The different international IAQ criterions including Kuwait for the recommended degrees of the common indoor pollutants and the exposure clip were tabulated in this chapter. The airing rate as an indicant for the quality of the schoolrooms indoor air was discussed, by reexamining the pervious work done in schoolrooms with regard to the different airing rates and its consequence on the wellness and public presentation of the pupils. From this literature, it is clear that more research and probes are needed to supply more information about the indoor air quality inside Kuwait schoolrooms and its consequence on the pupil ‘s comfort, wellness and productiveness.
3.2 Introduction
Air pollution is an look used to depict the air province when the concentrations of chemicals, particulate affair, or biological agents in the air exceeds the recommended degrees and became a beginning of wellness jeopardy or do uncomfortableness to worlds and other beings, or cause amendss to the populating natural environment. Pollution can be a consequence from semisynthetic day-to-day industrial procedures and activities or by the nature. There are many signifiers of pollutants: solid atoms, liquid droplets, or gases. Indoor air pollution can originate from indoor and out-of-door pollutant beginnings.
Peoples, particularly pupils, spend about 90 % of their live in sealed controlled environments, EPA ( 2001 ) . These sealed environments may hold pollutant beginnings that could hold short or long effects on residents ‘ wellness, comfort, wellbeing, morale and productiveness. The strength of the effects depends on the degree of the quality of the inside air ( pollution degrees ) . In recent old ages, the issue of indoor air and its quality ( IAQ ) has become an internationally recognized issue that caught the attending of research workers and the residents toward bettering the quality of air inside edifices environments. Fanger ( 2006 ) defines the indoor air quality ( IAQ ) as “ the desire of human to comprehend the air as fresh and pleasant, with no negative impacts on their heath and productiveness ” . Many research workers such as Wark and Warner ( 1981 ) and Singh ( 1996 ) investigated the beginnings of the outdoor and the indoor pollution that affected the indoor air. They found that the indoor air quality can be influenced by the out-of-door air pollution beginnings such as traffic ; industrial ; building, and burning activities and the indoor beginnings such as airing equipment, trappingss, and human activities.
3.3 Common Indoor Air Pollutants
In this subdivision, the common indoor air quality parametric quantities and their outdoor and indoor beginnings, in add-on to their wellness jeopardy on human shall be discussed. The common IAQ parametric quantities consist of three physical parametric quantities ( room temperature, comparative humidness, and air motion ) related to residents ‘ thermal comfort which is defined in the old chapter, and eight gaseous contamination parametric quantities ( sulfur dioxide ( SO2 ) , nitrogen dioxide ( NO2 ) , C monoxide ( CO ) , C dioxide ( CO2 ) , formaldehyde ( HCHO ) , radon ( Rn ) , ozone ( O3 ) and hydrocarbons ) , in add-on to three airborne contaminations parametric quantities, particulates affairs ( PM ) ; bioaerosols ( bacteriums, viruses, Fungis and pollen, aˆ¦etc ) and dusts. Olfactory properties are besides a parametric quantity.
3.3.1 Sulfur Dioxide ( SO2 )
This type of pollutant gas has been extensively studied by many research workers around the universe in out-of-doorss environments due to its high inclination to respond with broad scope of chemicals. SO2 is a colorless gas with a characteristic pungent olfactory property and consequences from the fossil fuels burning. Acid rain is one of the out-of-door pollution job cased by this gas.
Indoor SO2 concentrations are normally lower than outdoor, likely around 0.1 ppm, ( Andersen 1972 ; Yocom, 1982 and Meyer, 1983 ) . Due to its inclination to respond with many chemicals, indoor SO2 can respond with edifice stuffs and be absorbed by the edifice surfaces ( Andersen 1972 ) . This gas can fade out in H2O and mixes with air in all temperatures. The chief indoor beginnings of SO2 are coal firing inside hearths and utilizing fuel oil ranges and warmers. Sulfur dioxide causes concern, general uncomfortableness, anxiousness, and redness of the respiratory piece of land, wheezing, lung harm, and annoyance of the eyes, nose and pharynx, choking and coughing, ASHRAE ( 2009 ) .
3.3.2 Nitrogen Dioxide ( NO2 )
Nitrogen dioxide is a caustic gas with acrid olfactory property and formed in outdoor atmosphere from high temperature burning procedures by the reaction of the azotic oxide ( NO ) with Oxygen ( O2 ) and Ozone ( O3 ) . Motor vehicles contribute to about 55 % of the manmade NOx emanations, EPA ( 2008a ) . The major beginnings of this gas in indoors environments are gas cookery ranges and warmers and baccy fume, Samet et al. , ( 1987 ) . In a survey done by Yocom ( 1982 ) among British school kids, it was found that pupils whom they suffer from reduced respiratory map are populating in houses with gas ranges.
Exposure to low degrees of Nitrogen dioxide ( NO2 ) causes shortness of breath, fatigue, sickness and annoyance to the eyes, nose, pharynx, and lungs ; exposure to high degrees cause rapid combustion, cramps, swelling of tissues in the pharynx and upper respiratory piece of land, reduced oxygenation of organic structure tissues, a build-up of fluid in the lungs, and may take to decease, ( Burgess and Crutchfield, 1995 ; Bascom et Al. 1996 and ASHRAE, 2009 ) .
3.3.3 Carbon Monoxide ( CO )
CO is a really toxicant asphyxiate and non irritating gas that has no colour, olfactory property or gustatory sensation. This gas is produced by the uncomplete burning of carbon-based fuels ( Yocom, 1982 and Meyer, 1983 ) . Vehicular fumes is a major beginning of C monoxide, ( Moolenaar et al. , 1995 ; Girman et al. , 1998 and EPA, 2008a ) . The indoor C monoxide concentrations are frequently higher than the out-of-door concentrations due to the emanation from gas ranges and baccy fume, ( Yocom, 1982 and Girman et al. , 1998 ) . The chief consequence of this gas on human wellness is its affinity for haemoglobin in blood.
The inhaled CO mixes with the haemoglobin in the blood and signifiers carboxyhemoglobin that reduces the O transporting capacity of the blood vass. CO is 240 times more efficient at haemoglobin adhering than Oxygen, ASHRAE ( 2009 ) . Exposure to carbon monoxide causes concerns, shortness of breath, musculus achings, chest hurting, particularly in people with old bosom jobs history, blurry vision, giddiness, nausea/vomiting, failing, confusion, weariness, rapid bosom rate at high degrees, fast deep external respiration at high degrees, fainting and decease at high degrees, CPSC ( 2006 ) .
3.3.4 Carbon Dioxide ( CO2 )
Carbon dioxide is a colorless, odorless ; asphyxiate nursery gas emitted from the complete burning of the C with Oxygen. The mean typical concentrations of CO2 in the outdoor and indoor ( nonindustrial ) environment are 350-400 ppm, and 400-1200 ppm, severally, ASHRAE ( 2009 ) . The chief beginnings of the indoor CO2 are human organic structure through the metamorphosis procedure ( nutrient ingestion ) , and residents ‘ activity.
The wellness jobs associated with C dioxide exposure are concerns, giddiness, restlessness, feeling of an inability to take a breath, unease ( obscure feeling of uncomfortableness ) , increased bosom rate, increased blood force per unit area, ocular deformation, impaired hearing, nausea/vomiting, loss of consciousness, coma, paroxysms, decease from suffocation ( organic structure cells do non acquire the O they need to populate ) , EPA ( 2008a ) .
3.3.5 Formaldehyde ( HCHO )
Formaldehyde is a colorless gas with a strong pungent olfactory property and considered as the most of import substance in the aldehydes group due to it is largely used in the production procedure of many constructing stuffs such as foam insularity, plyboard, rugs, burning contraptions and atom board adhesives which releases once more the methanal to the indoor environment. The typical indoor methanal concentrations range from 0.05 to 1 ppm, while in the new edifices the indoor degrees of the methanal are higher, ( Meyer, 1983 ; Samet and Spengler, 1991 ) and most of the complains were from edifices with formaldehyde froth insularity and nomadic places that uses plyboard panelling, Wadden and Scheff ( 1983 ) . The rate of diffusion of this substance is a map of the indoor temperature and humidness. Exposing to formaldehyde can do wellness effects including oculus, nose, and pharynx annoyance ; wheezing and coughing ; weariness ; skin roseola ; terrible allergic reactions, EPA ( 2008a ) . High concentrations of methanal may do malignant neoplastic disease and other effects listed under organic gases.
3.3.6 Radon ( Rn )
Radon is an inert radioactive, colorless, odorless, tasteless baronial chemical gas component. Naturally, this component can be found as dirt gas contained Rn formed from the decay merchandise of uranium and can stay as a gas under normal environmental conditions. This contaminant component can be found indoors due to some beginnings such as edifice stuffs, particularly that rich with Ra, such as alum shale-based stuff and phosphogypsum drywall, deep Wellss H2O and natural gas holding high Rn concentrations. Another chief beginning is the flow of the dirt gas into the places through edifice clefts, sumps and any other gaps or around the concrete slab, Bale ( 1980 ) . Due to tightness of the edifices design, the indoor concentrations are normally higher than that in out-of-door environment. Recently, this component is considered as carcinogen component due to it is radiation, which has a critical wellness jeopardy on edifice residents, where it is considered to be the 2nd most ground of lung malignant neoplastic disease after coffin nail smoke, EPA ( 2008b ) .
3.3.7 Ozone ( O3 )
Ozone is a really reactive pollutant that can oxidise most of the chemicals in nature such as aldehydes. In natural outdoor environment, Ozone produces from the consequence of the sunshine on the N oxides and hydrocarbons. Normally the Ozone concentrations in the out-of-door environment are higher than that found in indoors. The chief beginnings of the high indoor Ozone concentration are the photocopy machines, optical maser pressmans, electrostatic air cleaners and x-ray generators, ( Yocom, 1982 and Wadden and Scheff, 1983 ) .
These beginnings develop electrostatic Fieldss that can bring forth extremely toxic concentrations of ozone in air. Exposing to low concentration degrees of Ozone can do oculus annoyance, ocular perturbations, concerns, giddiness, oral cavity and pharynx annoyance, thorax hurting, insomnia, breath shortness and coughing ( Sittig, 1991 and Apte et Al. 2008 ) , where exposure to high degrees of ozone can cut down lung map, and do respiratory jobs, such as asthma or bronchitis, ( Bates, 1989 ; EPA, 2008a and ASHRAE, 2009 ) .
3.3.8 Hydrocarbons
Most of the indoor hydrocarbon beginnings are consequences from the different housework stuffs such as widows, oven, drain, and vesture cleaners, pigment dissolver ; and human usage stuffs such as deodourants, shaving picks, hair sprays and air refreshers sprays. The indoor hydrocarbons degrees reach high degrees when housework is in advancement, Meyer ( 1983 ) . The indoor cookery gas ( largely Propane gas ) is considered besides a major beginning of the indoor hydrocarbons which may consequences in serious fire accidents or decease due to deficient care or checking for the gas burner and cookery equipment, Meyer ( 1983 ) .
3.3.8 Particular Matters ( PM )
Particulate affairs ( PM ) can be found as solid and/or liquid droplets atoms suspended in air. Particulate affairs can be generated from adult male made ( fossil fuels burning and mechanical procedures ) or natural ( vents, dust storms, and forest and grassland fires ) procedures, ASHRAE ( 2009 ) . There are many beginnings of the indoor atoms such as pets, gas ranges, and baccy fume. Atoms are classified harmonizing to their size, as all right atoms are those whose size is smaller than 2.5 I?m, while harsh atoms are those which are larger than 2.5 I?m. Heinrich and Slama ( 2007 ) argued that the all right atoms are the major menace beginning that affects the kids wellness, where exposing to ticket atoms can consequences in cardiac and respiratory jobs, ( Dockery et al. , 1993 ; Dockery and Pope, 1994 ; Pope et al. , 2002 ; Wu et al. , 2005 and Gilliland et al. , 2005 ) . The PM metals constituents are a major beginning that involves in the development of pneumonic, cardiovascular and allergic diseases, Schwarze et Al. ( 2006 ) . Exposure to high degrees of all right atoms causes wellness jeopardies such as bosom diseases ; respiratory diseases ; altered lung maps, particularly in kids, and lung malignant neoplastic disease and decease, EPA ( 2008 ) .
3.3.9 Bioaerosols Parameters
Fungi, viruses, bacteriums, fungous and bacteria spores, pollen and allergens are types of the microbiological indoor particulate contaminations. The major beginnings of these contaminations are human, animate beings and workss, where it can be found anyplace these beginnings are available, Meyer ( 1983 ) . Due to the deficient care of the HVAC system parts ( capacitors, chilling spirals, canals and drainage pans ) , it can be another beginning of taint by promoting the proliferation of the bugs, ( Wark and Warner, 1981 and Samet et al. , 1991 ) . The concentrations of the indoor bugs are higher than that in the out-of-door environment due to the edifice stringency and the beginning handiness.
3.3.10 Dust
Dust is one type of the solid particulate contaminations. ASHRAE ( 2009 ) defines dust as “ solid atoms projected into air by natural forces such as air current, volcanic eruption, temblors, or by mechanical procedures including suppression, crunching, destruction, blasting, showing, boring, shoveling and sweeping ” . Dust immigrates from exterior to inside environment by infiltration air through the edifice ‘s cleft, uncertain Windowss and doors and through the airing system. Dust has wellness effects on people with ultra-sensitive lungs such as people with asthma, immature kids and aged people. Dust causes uncomfortableness for people and amendss home furniture and family equipment.
3.3.11 Olfactory properties
Indoor olfactory properties are originating from resident ‘s organic structures and their indoor activities such as smoke, cookery, refuse, sewerage and industrial procedures. The human organic structure usually dissipates around 200 types of chemicals which are responsible for the human olfactory properties, ( Meyer, 1983 ) . Olfactory properties do non hold any major effects on the resident ‘s wellness, but it causes discomfort esthesis to the residents which make it as a mark of the hapless indoor air quality.
During this survey, the CO2 contamination will be studied to look into the quality of indoor air inside Kuwaiti ‘s schoolrooms. The indoor concentration of C dioxide ( CO2 ) has frequently been used as a alternate for the airing rate per resident, ( Lee and Chang, 1999 and Daisey et al. , 2003 ) , where supplying good airing rates with sufficient sums of fresh air can thin and reduces the concentrations degrees of indoor air pollution generated by the different indoor pollutants beginnings.
3.4 International and Kuwait Indoor Air Quality Standards and Regulations
Since the last decennary, research workers were interested in look intoing the indoor air pollution for different indoor environments and the contamination beginnings to bespeak the acceptable indoor concentration degrees for these pollutants. As a consequence of these researches, many IAQ criterions and ordinances have been developed and established by different organisations to bespeak the recommended acceptable concentrations degrees for these indoor pollutants. A sum-up of the common indoor air pollutants criterions in ppm ( unless otherwise specified ) are given in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1: International and Kuwait Standards and Guidelines for Common Indoor Air Pollutants, ( in ppm ) .
NIOSH
( 1992 )
Canadian
( 1995 )
Occupational safety and health administration
Maktab al-khidmat
( 2000 )
NAAOS/EPA
( 2000 )
WHO/Europe
( 2000 )
ACGIH
( 2001 )
Hong Kong
( 2003 )
KW-EPA
( 2001 )
Sulfur
Dioxide
( SO2 )
2 [ 8 hour ]
5 [ 15 min ]
0.019 [ 8 hour ]
0.38 [ 5 min ]
5 [ 8hr ]
0.5 [ 8 hour ]
1.0 [ 5 min ]
0.14 [ 24 hour ]
0.03 [ 1 year ]
0.047 [ 24 hour ]
0.012 [ 1 year ]
2 [ 8 hour ]
5 [ 15 min ]
0.03 / 0.04
[ 8 hours ]
2 [ 8 hour ]
5 [ 15 min ]
Nitrogen
Dioxide
( NO2 )
1.0
[ 15 min ]
0.05 [ 1 year ]
0.25 [ 1 hour ]
5
[ Ceiling ]
5 [ 8 hour ]
10 [ 5 min ]
0.05
[ 1 years ]
0.1 [ 1 hour ]
0.02 [ 1 year ]
3 [ 8 hour ]
5 [ 15 min ]
0.021/ 0.08
[ 8 hours ]
0.026 / 0.08
[ 8 hours ]
Carbon
Dioxide
( CO2 )
5000 [ 8 hour ]
30000 [ 15 min ]
3500
[ 8 hours ]
5000
[ 8 hours ]
5000 [ 8 hour ]
10000 [ 15 min ]
5000 [ 8 hour ]
30000 [ 15 min ]
800 / 1000
[ 8 hours ]
600 / 1000
[ 8 hours ]
Carbon
Monoxide
( CO )
35
200 [ Ceiling ]
11 [ 8 hour ]
25 [ 1 hour ]
50
30
60 [ 30 min ]
9 [ 8 hour ]
35 [ 1 hour ]
86 [ 15 min ]
51 [ 30 min ]
25 [ 1 hour ]
8.6 [ 8 hour ]
25
1.7 / 8.7
[ 8 hours ]
86 [ 15 min ]
51 [ 30 min ]
25 [ 1 hour ]
8.6 [ 8 hour ]
Particular
Matter
( & lt ; 2.5 I?m )
0.1 mg/m3
[ 1 hours ]
0.04 mg/m3
[ 8 hours ]
5 mg/m3
1.5 mg/m3
For & lt ; 4 I?m
35I?g/m3 [ 24hr ]
15I?g/m3 [ 1 year ]
25I?g/m3 [ 24hr ]
10I?g/m3 [ 1 year ]
3 mg/m3
0.23 mg/m3
[ 24 hours ]
0.07 mg/m3
[ 1 years ]
Formaldehyde
( HCHO )
0.016 [ 8 hour ]
0.1 [ 15 min ]
0.1 [ 5 min ]
0.04 [ 1 year ]
0.75 [ 8 hour ]
2 [ 15 min ]
0.3 [ 8 hour ]
1.0 [ 5 min ]
0.4 [ 8 hour ]
0.081 [ 30 min ]
0.3 [ ceiling ]
0.024 / 0.081
[ 8 hours ]
0.08 [ 30 min ]
Radon
( Rn )
4 pCi/L
[ 1 years ]
5 pCi/L
[ 1 years ]
4 pCi/L
[ 1 years ]
4 pCi/L
[ 1 years ]
2.7 pCi/L
[ 1 years ]
4 / 5 pCi/L
[ 8 hours ]
4 pCi/L
[ 1 years ]
Ozone
( O3 )
0.1
[ 8 hours ]
0.02
[ 8 hours ]
0.1
[ 8 hours ]
0.06
[ 8 hours ]
0.12 [ 1 hour ]
0.07 [ 8 hour ]
0.06
[ 8 hours ]
0.05 – heavy work
0.2 – any work [ 2 hours ]
0.025 / 0.061
[ 8 hours ]
0.03 / 0.1
[ 8 hours ]
Where ; Numbers in brackets [ ] refers to mean clip ( min=minutes ; hr=hours and yr=years ) .
– NIOSH ( 1992 ) . NIOSH Recommendations for Occupational Safety and Health – Collection of Policy Documents and Statements. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, January. [ Online at: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.cdc.gov/niosh/chem-inx.html ] ;
– Canadian – Health Canada ( 1995 ) . Exposure Guidelines for Residential Indoor Air Quality: A Report of the Federal-Provincial Advisory Committee on Environmental and Occupational Health. Ottawa: Health Canada ;
– Occupational safety and health administration – U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 29, Part 1910.1000-1910.1450. [ Online at:
hypertext transfer protocol: //www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document? p_table=STANDARDS & A ; p_id=9992 ] ;
– Maktab al-khidmat ( 2000 ) . Maximal Concentrations at the Workplace and Biological Tolerance Values for Working Materials 2000. Commission for the Investigation of Health Hazard of Chemical Compounds in the Work Area, Federal Republic of Germany ;
– NAAOS/EPA ( 2000 ) . U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 40, Part 50. National Ambient Air Quality Standards. [ Online at: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.epa.gov/ttn/naaqs/ ] ;
– WHO/Europe ( 2000 ) . World Health Organization. Air Quality Guidelines for Europe ( 2nd Edn. ) . World Health Organization Regional Publications, European Series No. 91. World Health Organization, Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen. [ online at: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.euro.who.int/document/e71922.pdf ] ;
– ACGIH ( 2001 ) . Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents and Biological Exposure Indices. American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 1330 Kemper Meadow Drive, 6500 Glenway, Building D-7, Cincinnati, OH, 45240-1630 ;
– Hong Kong ( 2003 ) . The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, A Guide on Indoor Air Quality Certification Scheme, 2003 [ online at: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.iaq.gov.hk/cert/doc/CertGuideeng.pdf ] and
– KW-EPA ( 2001 ) . Kuwait Environmental Public Authority, Requirements and Environmental Standards in Kuwait, 2001.
These criterions are established harmonizing to the intent and activity of the indoor zone and features of its users or residents. For this ground, some differences in values for the same pollutant can be seen in the tabular array.
3.5 Sick Building Syndrome ( SBS )
Since people spend most of their times in indoor environments in edifices, these edifices are expected to be good designed in order non to endanger the residents ‘ wellbeing and wellness. Residents, in general, have good cognition of the different types of the indoor pollutants and its wellness jeopardies on human, but are still incognizant of the quality of the air inside the edifice envelope and whether it is equal or unequal which may hold a menace to residents ‘ wellness.
Due to the energy crisis of the 1970s and its effects on some states, tighter edifices designs with low air exchange ( fresh air ) with outside environment have been constructed in order to salvage energy costs. Indoor air recirculation airing scheme has been used for constructing airing intents. Although important energy nest eggs was accomplished, research workers reported residents ‘ complains due to a composite and even disenabling syndromes. These syndromes are defined as ill edifice syndrome ( SBS ) and were linked to the pollution of the inside air and the degree of the airing.
Unacceptable indoor air quality ( IAQ ) conditions may happen in 30 % of the new edifices ( WHO/Europe, 2000 ) , and may do diverse symptoms and unwellnesss that affect the residents ‘ wellbeing, which may consequences in increasing the residents ‘ productiveness lost and work absenteeism. This symptom syndrome which referred to as SBS, may take to important work clip lost and medical costs that affects the national economic system. The ill edifice syndrome ( SBS ) can be identified by the undermentioned typical symptoms such as concern ; chest stringency ; lethargy ; dry thorax ; stuffy nose ; lost of concentration ; dry tegument ; blocked, runny an itchy olfactory organ and lacrimation or antsy eyes.
Sick edifice syndrome ( SBS ) and the edifice related unwellnesss ( BRI ) are non needfully the same, where the BRI symptoms such as diseases, coryza and asthma are more acute than SBS symptoms in the edifices, Singh ( 1996 ) .
3.6 Indoor Air Quality ( IAQ ) in Schools
Schools are the most of import indoor environments, where kids spend most of their times besides places. It is good documented that IAQ jobs in schools and other edifices types, commercial and residential, occurred as an unexpected consequences from using energy preservation steps in edifices. Ventilation in these edifices has decreased to salvage energy by depending on the indoor recycled air inside the occupied zone. Children breathe higher volumes of air relative to their organic structure weights which make them more susceptibleness to some environmental pollutants than grownups, ( Faustman et al. , 2000 and Landrigan, 1998 ) . Poor IAQ in the schoolroom could hold negative impacts on kids ‘s acquisition and public presentation, which may hold both immediate and womb-to-tomb effects, for the pupils and for society ( Mendell and Heath, 2005 ) .
Many research workers investigated IAQ jobs in schools around the universe, where these probes were conducted frequently for a specific individual indoor air pollutant or a combination of pollutants ( GAO, 1995 ) . In schools, pollutant emanations can happen in many topographic points within the school envelope such as cafeterias, swimming pools, scientific discipline labs ( frequently without fume goons ) and computing machine suites. IAQ jobs can consequences besides from the edifice design, building stuffs, type of the HVAC units and the deficiency of care of these units, and crowded schoolrooms. The undermentioned literature is some illustrations of the surveies conducted in schoolrooms around the universe to look into the effects of the different indoor pollutants on the pupil ‘s wellness and public presentation.
The NO2, TVOC, methanal, PM10 and asbestos dust concentrations were measured by Cavallo et Al. ( 1993 ) in 10 of course ventilated schools and seven air-conditioned office edifices in Italy. The findings of this survey suggested that the mean NO2, PM10 and asbestos dust concentrations were the same indoors and out-of-doorss in all schools.
The effects of generated pollutants from gas warmers on kids in 41 schoolrooms in Australia were studied by Pilotto et Al. ( 1997 ) . A important relation was found between the indoor NO2 concentration and the absences of the pupils from school. The writers reported that strong grounds was found between the association of NO2 concentration degrees and the pupil ‘s sore pharynx, balls and absences from school even at low concentrations degrees.
Lee and Chang ( 1999 ) measured and compared the indoor and out-of-door comparative humidness ( Rh factor ) , and the concentration degrees of CO2, SO2, NO, NO2, PM10, and HCHO, in add-on to the entire bacterium counts in five air-conditioned or of course ventilated schoolrooms in Hong Kong. The purpose of the survey was to look into whether the mensural indoor concentration degrees are complied with the Hong Kong criterion.
In a survey by Daisey et Al. ( 2003 ) reviewed and analyzed the literature of the go outing IAQ, airing rates and indicated edifice wellness jobs information related to the school edifices. The mensural airing and CO2 concentrations showed that many of the schoolrooms were holding unequal airing. They suggested that although degrees of the mensural indoor pollutants concentrations ( HCHO, VOCs and bioaerosols ) were lower than that recommended by criterions and guidelines, exposures to pollutants in schools are associated with allergic reaction, asthma, and SBS symptoms
In Denmark, Meyer et Al. ( 2004 ) conduced a cross-sectional epidemiological survey, which included 1053 school kids aged 13-17 old ages, in 15 school edifices. The survey utilized a questionnaire about the edifice related symptoms and wellness facets impacting the pupils ‘ exposure to some indoor pollutants. In this survey the room temperature, CO2, comparative humidness degrees were measured ; the dust from the floors, air, airing canals during school twenty-four hours were collected and constructing features including mold infestation were assessed. The writers reported that there is no positive association between building-related symptoms and the wet of the air and growing of casts in the school edifices. The writers concluded that cast exposure is a secondary beginning and non a chief beginning to asthma, hay febrility, recent air passage infection, or psychosocial factors.
A field survey, included 358 pupils in traditional and portable mechanical ventilated schoolrooms in 22 primary and secondary schools, conducted by Shendell et Al. ( 2004 ) to look into the consequence of the difference between the outdoor and indoor CO2 concentrations ( dCO2 ) , and the pupil absence in Washington and Idaho, USA. The short-run CO2 concentrations were higher in more than half of the schoolrooms. The writers found that a 1000 ppm addition in the dCO2 will diminish the one-year mean day-to-day attending of the pupils by 0.5-0.9 % , matching to relative10-20 % addition in the pupil ‘s absence.
In a critical scientific reappraisal about the grounds for the direct association of the indoor pollutants and thermic conditions on the pupils ‘ public presentation and attending in schools, Mendell and Heath ( 2005 ) concluded that exposing to indoor microbic and chemical pollutants beginnings in schools can be linked to increased school absenteeism, asthma, and allergic reaction in kids and grownups.
In eight schools edifices in France, which were either of course or automatically ventilated, Blondeau et Al. ( 2005 ) carried out a field survey to mensurate the outdoor and indoor pollution in these edifice. In this field study the writers continuously monitored the outdoor and indoor gaseous pollutants ( Ozone, NO and NO2 ) , and airborne atom pollutants in add-on to the indoor humidness, temperature, CO2 concentration for a two-week period.
The findings of this survey showed an acceptable No and NO2 outdoor/indoor concentrations ratio, while the outdoor/indoor Ozone concentrations ratio was high and was affected by the out-of-door environment. The writers argued that “ the more air-tight the edifice envelope, the lower the Ozone ratio occurred ” . They besides found that the tenancy is strongly act uponing the indoor concentration degree of the mensural airborne atoms when the edifices were occupied.
In parallel categories of 10-year-old kids, Wargocki et Al. ( 2005 ) studied and measured the impact of the IAQ, by increased airing rates, on the kids ‘s larning public presentation. In appropriate lessons each hebdomad, the kids ‘s usual instructors administered parallel public presentation from reading to mathematics undertakings during a school hebdomad period. The writers found that if the airing rate increased from 5 to 10 L/s, a important betterment by more than 15 % in the public presentation of school work is achieved.
In a field survey conducted in 64 simple and in-between school schoolrooms in Michigan, USA, Godwin and Batterman ( 2007 ) , monitored and examined the Indoor air quality ( IAQ ) parametric quantities to measure the degrees of different indoor pollutants ( CO2, VOCs and bioaerosols ) , the emanation beginnings, comparative humidness, temperature and the airing rates over one school hebdomad period. During this survey the writers completed a comprehensive and the measurings were used to look into the differences in air quality degrees within and between schools. It was found that in many of the tested schoolrooms the CO2 concentrations are higher than the standard degree ( 1000 ppm ) which indicated unequal airing rates, where the degrees of the mensural indoor pollutants were low to chair concentrations.
In Kuwait there is no surveies conducted to look into the quality of the indoor air and it is effects on the pupils and staff ‘s comfort, wellness and public presentation in schoolrooms. This deficiency of information will be approximately covered in this thesis by mensurating the airing rates in schoolrooms to look into the degree of indoor air quality inside the schoolrooms and associate them to the thermic comfort conditions of these schoolrooms.
3.7 Ventilation rates and Student ‘s Performance and Productivity
Through the literature there are few surveies conducted to look into the consequence of the different airing rates on the pupil ‘s and staff ‘s school work public presentation and productiveness in schoolrooms. Myhrvold and Olesen ( 1997 ) conducted a field survey in 35 Norse schoolrooms to mensurate the pupils ‘ concentration by mensurating their reaction times with different airing rates. They found that by increasing the airing rate per individual from 4 L/s to 12 L/s, the pupils ‘ reaction times were 5.4 % less ( i.e. faster ) .
In three public presentation trials used by Ito et Al. ( 2006 ) and Murakami et Al. ( 2006 ) in Nipponese schoolrooms, research workers found that with an addition in airing rate from 0.6-5 L/s the public presentation was improved 5.4 % ; 8.7 % and 5.8 % severally. Wargocki and Wyon ( 2006 ; 2007a and B ) investigated the impact of increasing the airing rate on the public presentation of 10 old ages old school kids with parallel public presentation undertakings. The writers found that by increasing the airing rate from 5 to 10 L/s, the school work public presentation has improved by 15 % and do a noticeable kids ‘s school public presentation and acquisition. In two UK schoolrooms, it was found that the students ‘ work rate increased by 7 % in the mathematical trials of add-on and minus by increasing the supplied fresh air from 0.3-5 to 13-16 L/s, ( Bako-Biro et al. , 2007 ) .
3.8 Ventilation Rates and Energy Consumption in Kuwaiti Schools
Ventilation procedure is supplying sums of out-of-door air ( fresh air ) from the outside environment to the inside infinites or zones via flow through of course agencies ( unfastened doors and window ) or automatically agencies ( fans and HVAC systems ) or by infiltration through the edifice clefts. The chief thought of the airing procedure is to supply the comfort and healthy conditions for the residents by equilibrating the thermic comfort conditions and thining the concentrations of the indoor pollutants within the occupied zone envelope.
The ingestion of energy in the airing procedure in edifices is due to the usage of mechanical airing systems to thermally conditioning the airing air by chilling, warming, dehumidification or humidification procedures or utilizing airing fans. The capacity of the energy ingestion by these systems is relative straight to the addition of the sum of the airing air needed. The airing procedure is guided by the international criterions and ordinances, such as ASHRAE 62 criterion, by stipulating the minimal airing rates that can run into the resident ‘s comfort and wellness conditions to keep their public presentation and productiveness, while salvaging energy.
Due to Kuwait ‘s hot and dry desert clime, the operation of the HVAC systems is indispensable, in all edifices, most of the twelvemonth. The one-year energy production in Kuwait is ( 21 G.kWh ) in the twelvemonth 2009, with a jutting one-year addition of 5 % . Air-conditioning in Kuwait consumes about 45 % of the one-year energy production with an one-year operation cost of about KD 0.7 billion, ( MEW/R6, 2010 and MEW, 2010 ) .
In Kuwait, there are 540 school edifices occupied by about 360 1000s pupils with an mean ratio of about 25 pupils per schoolroom, MOE ( 2009 ) . The figure of schools is subjected to be increased by 10 % annually, MOE ( 2009 ) . Since the beginning of 1990 ‘s, the school edifices in Kuwait were extensively constructed or renovated. Air-conditioning systems were installed in those edifices to supply comfy thermic and wellness conditions. The control of those systems is non under the direct control of the pupils, and this may hold a negative consequence on the pupil comfort and wellness in the schoolroom.
These schools consume about 10 % of the state ‘s one-year energy production, which comes to ( 2.1 G.kWh ) , and cost about KD 60 1000000s, with a day-to-day energy ingestion rate of 21.6 kWh per pupil, MEW ( 2010 ) .
The ASHRAE criterion 62 ( 2004 ) for airing demands is adapted by Kuwait ‘s energy codification, MEW/R6 ( 2010 ) , for the different types of edifices and infinites. Harmonizing to this criterion, a minimal airing rate of 7.5 L/s ( 15 ft3/min ) is recommended per resident in schoolrooms, with a typical occupant denseness of 33 individuals per 90 M2 ( 1000 ft2 ) and ceiling tallness of 3 m ( 10 foot ) . The current ASHRAE criterion would necessitate an air exchange rate of about 3 air alteration per hr ( ACH ) for schoolroom. Kuwait ‘s ministry of electricity and H2O recommended an air alteration of 0.5 ACH for schoolrooms for energy economy demands, MEW/R6 ( 2010 ) .
The indoor air quality conditions in schoolrooms have to be earnestly considered because pupils are still physically developing, where hapless indoor air quality conditions could impact the pupils ‘ and staff ‘s comfort, wellness and may indirectly impact their acquisition and public presentation and productiveness – this may hold damaging effects on them and the society ‘s hereafter.
3.9 Discussion
The literature reappraisal in this chapter, have shown the importance of look intoing the indoor air quality in the different occupied zones, particularly schoolrooms in schools, where bespeaking the pollution beginnings and the degree of the different pollutants that may happen in schoolrooms, would assist in happening solutions to get the better of any obstructions in the pupil acquisition and public presentation.
The necessity to regularly look into the indoor air quality inside the schoolrooms is due to the altering denseness of pupils in schoolrooms and the long period of exposure to the different pollutants beginnings. This exposure may earnestly impact the residents ‘ comfort and wellness and resulted in serious wellness jobs that can increase the absence from school and degrade the public presentation and productiveness degrees. These wellness jobs will impact the national economic system through increasing the national wellness attention disbursals and lost disbursals due to the deficient pupils and staff ‘s public presentation and productiveness in schools.
Investigating the indoor air quality conditions inside schoolrooms is an expensive and potentially debatable issue due to its map of different factors such as the edifice stuffs, equipment, furniture and HVAC systems, where all of them are changing as maps of clip exposure and airing rates. The rate of airing inside any occupied zone can be a step for the quality of the indoor air. The adequately airing rate can be an index for inside environment, where the literature showed many research workers describing that unequal ( low ) airing rates indicates hapless indoor air quality.
During this survey, the airing rates measurings inside the schoolrooms can be inferred by the indoor pollutant C dioxide measurings, where the indoor concentration of C dioxide ( CO2 ) has frequently been used as a alternate for the airing rate per resident in schools, Lee and Chang ( 1999 ) and Daisey et Al. ( 2003 ) . Higher CO2 concentrations degrees indicate unequal airing rates and consequences in hapless indoor air quality conditions inside the schoolrooms.
The consequence of airing rates on the pupils and staff ‘s public presentation and productivenesss, will be related, later in the thesis, to the world-wide findings of similar recent field surveies conducted by the different research workers.
